11th post: Relation to 3 blogs

The blog, Urban Infrastructure, depicts the urban structure of two main urban areas in Trinidad; the capital Port-of-Spain (PoS) and Arima. The authors also go on to highlight the use of specific urban spaces in relation to social groups in their second post, which was duly noted. The second blog, All things entertainment in TnT, seek to showcase the effect different forms of entertainment have on the urban landscape. The authors direct attention to the diversity of physical structures, cultures and social groups that coverage to the city for leisure as well as the interrelationship between them and other factors such as transport, mobility and political factors.

As stated in previous posts, urban planning and policies are employed within a city to control the manner in which a city is run and to mitigate any problems that occur. This includes the design and placement of infrastructure. Infrastructure within a city is inclusive of buildings, roads, drainage and sewage systems, transportation and utilities. The infrastructure within an urban space influences its functions, uses and participants. Urban spaces are some of the major spaces within a city in which many individuals (with varying capacities) converge to conduct various tasks and activities, and as such should be considered in the urban planning and policies employed. These range from work, leisure, educational purposes and errands.

Our blog, Integrating disabilities through infrastructure (specifically mobility and visual impairment), relates to the aforementioned blogs as they all link, in one way or another, to the built environment and social participation. They also highlight that activities influence the urban landscape and vice versa.

In the Urban Infrastructure blog, the issue of exclusive places was mentioned. Exclusive places are spaces in which certain social groups are thought of as not belonging in that area and are thus discriminated against or marginalised. This was done in the context of a socioeconomic perspective using the Hyatt regency and surroundings as an example. So therefore, the more powerful and financially capable individuals mainly use this space and we see how the infrastructure affects its function and who participates. This can be extended to various social groups and a question arises; what about individuals with disabilities and their needs? This could have been addressed in the blog as they are one of the main groups that are not considered within the majority of planning in the Port-of -pain area, especially since the blog covers infrastructure such as streets and buildings. If their specific needs aren’t catered for, at least in main areas of urban spaces, then these spaces are going to become exclusive spaces. They are ostracised because the physical infrastructure makes it difficult for them to access and enjoy the spaces and activities occurring.

The second blog states that the urban landscape caters for a variety of needs and people partake in the various entertainments to relieve the stresses of everyday life. Port-of-Spain, in which there exists various hubs of entertainment activities, caters for a wide range of people and so does the infrastructure or adapts to do so. The same question comes to mind here as well; what about individuals with disabilities? We are left wondering about how groups interact with the entertainment sector and how the structures of the venues influence their opportunity to participate. If the built environment does not cater for the needs of individuals with disabilities, then they cannot easily access the entertainment venues and enjoy the activity. This is also influenced by the transportation networks indicated by the blog as they are limited and inadequate to facilitate individuals with disabilities. It was noted on the blog that it is progressing to meet the needs of everyone.

Therefore, from these blogs we get a picture that the infrastructure influences the activities and social participation. We also see that urban built environments are limited and do not generally consider individuals with disabilities and that the issue of inclusion does not come to mind as a main factor when discussing social groups and infrastructure. Though these blogs took different directions in their analysis of the physical environment and its influence, disabilities and inclusion of such could have been highlighted because they are a main group that is disfranchised in society and by extension the influences on other social groups.

In addition, the third blog that will be discussed, The Existence of the Past within Modern Day Life, looks at the infrastructural transition of Port-of-Spain; historic to present day, and the remnants of the past that are apart of modern day Port-of-Spain. While all of the posts in the blog are quite interesting, the aspects that relates to the theme of our blog are the posts titled, City Planning: A reflection of Historic ties and The evolution of infrastructural design. In our blog we highlighted why the majority of urban areas in Trinidad and Tobago are not more inclusive of the needs of individuals with disabilities. The reason being, conventional designs were still very much a part of the planning as well as the specific attitude towards such individuals, which is why policies are not changing or being enforced as they should. This is a reflection of the modern city approach in which buildings are seen as economic tools for development, as stated by the authors of the blog. Around the 19^th and 20^th century when the main parts of PoS were being developed there was the modern city movement which was characterised by high rise buildings and economics driven. In this era and before, especially within the Caribbean, city life generally surrounded the working man and there was traditional perspective on things. Other groups of individuals were not considered (eg. Women, the elderly and individuals with disabilities) because their roles within everyday life in the city were limited. Now, with the latter part of the 20^th century into the 21^st, emphasis was being placed on such groups because each felt that their needs should be considered and as a result the form of cities changed with the changing culture and the infrastructure adapted. Moving into a postmodern era we see that designs are made inclusive of such group as was highlighted in a previous post. Certainly, Trinidad and Tobago and by extension the Caribbean is not at this stage but hopefully someday we will and the needs of individuals with disabilities and other social groups would be respected. 

Links to comments on course collogues blogs:

Urban Infrastructure: comment

All things entertainment in TnT: comment 1 and 2: comment 3

The Existence of past within modern day life:comment

Overall statement

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Life for anyone within a place is anchored around work, security, comfort, leisure, identity and belonging, and the built environment in which they reside or encounter play a significant role in reinforcing those aspects/feelings. Urban areas are some of the main spaces within a country where many persons converge on a daily basis for various reasons. This includes persons with mobility and visual impairments and by extension the entire community. These individuals all have varying roles, capabilities and tasks to complete within a city, just like any other person, and as such their needs should be catered for by the built environment. This should be in at least public spaces (recreational parks, government buildings and transportation sites) and main establishments (entertainment venues, banks, shops and restaurants).  The government has the main responsibility and employs urban planning and policies to ensure all citizens are considered. The role of planning and policies is to control the development of a city and to resolve its problems. However, the planning and policies are only effective as its implementation. In Trinidad and Tobago the implementation of sufficient and effective measures to facilitate individuals with mobility and visual impairments are limited and this blog is filled with pictures to prove it. This has many effects on said persons and the major being social exclusion in which they may feel both” inept and inhuman.” (UWI Today, 2015)

Infrastructure throughout Trinidad and Tobago are shown in the images above which are established to accommodate persons with disabilities.

Reference

Leading the Charge. (2015, April). UWI Today. Retrieved from http://sta.uwi.edu/uwiToday/article14.asp

Urban Form and Culture

Quote Source: (Stevenson, 2009)
Edited by: S. Nanda
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Each urban area across the globe consists of unique sub cultures which are exposed and share among the different groups in societies. Urban culture would vary from city to city and may change over specific periods due to the addiction or the subtraction of one or more subcultures. In Trinidad and Tobago our urban culture is unique as it is home to various groups of individuals with different racial and socio-economic backgrounds. The groups with the power in society, the government and those with economic weight (eg business people), influence the plans, functions and policies that affect urban areas. Said groups are also responsible for implementations of various activities which would influence the beliefs, norms and values of the cities’ population. Urban form and culture influences the mind-set of the local population on specific views or issues. In Trinidad and Tobago there is a prejudiced attitude towards individuals with disabilities in which they are viewed as objects of charity stated by Sharda Ramlakhan in a previous post and of having no real function in society. The physical layouts of cities do not adequately incorporate individuals with disabilities. These both stem from traditional and conventional ways of thinking and doing things and as a result an urban culture of negative attitudinal behaviours which translates into the urban form which does not consider individuals with disabilities in their design or policies fully is created. Consequently, individuals with disabilities feel as though they are not valued and are further ostracised and marginalised which forms an atmosphere of social exclusion.

The above photographs illustrate several key issues throughout urban areas in Trinidad and Tobago.

Reference

Stevenson, D. (2009). Urban Culture. Retrieved April 03, 2015, from http://www.sage-ereference.com/view/urbanstudies/n301.xml

What can be implemented throughout urban areas in Trinbago.

The government of Trinidad and Tobago has outlined numerous measures to be employed to facilitate individuals with disabilities. The issue is that they are either not employed or not employed and enforced effectively to sufficiently accommodate such individuals. Below are measures that can be implemented in the short term to main spaces in urban areas. 

1. The most important issue would be to amend any existing document as to ensure that all needs are satisfied and no loop holes are available for others to exploit. This goes for all urban planning and policy documents as well as any act concerning individuals with disabilities. In an article published in April on the UWI Today online publications titled, Taking the Charge NODES (The UWI Network and Outreach for Disability Education and Sensitisation) host landmark disability conference, highlighted the ‘leeway’ that the Equal Opportunities Act gave employers. It states that in its present form it allows employers to discriminate against individuals with disabilities in regards to payment. In another article referenced in an earlier post Sharda Ramlakhan spoke of the ways individuals with disabilities are still disadvantaged in terms of simple accessibility issues in main areas of Trinidad even though plans are established. These examples highlight the need for review, amendment and stringent enforcement. (eg review and proper enforcement of building codes)

2. Sharda Ramlakhan in her interview also mentioned the need for consultations with individuals with disabilities and organisations that represent said individuals. This is important as such individuals have first had experience and knowledge and would give advice on effective measures. It will also allow them to express their view and understand that their opinion is valued. The majority of planners and individuals in power employ a top-down approach in which failure to eradicate the problem/s occur. In these instances, the voices of the persons who are marginalised are absent from any planning, management or implementation.

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Source: (Ali, 2013)

3.  Individuals with disabilities would need to have access to certain buildings on a daily basis. Government officers, the supermarkets, banks and the general clothing stores are buildings in Trinidad and Tobago which these groups of persons, like other citizens, visit frequently. Therefore infrastructure to accommodate persons with disabilities would benefit all.

- Ramps with railings at the entrances of the building should be established in order to facilitate person with disabilities. It should be mandatory that ramps and railings at the entrances of all buildings are implemented.

Image 1 shows Independence Square in PoS.  A ramp and railing is employed so
that individuals with disabilities can access the buildings easier.
Source: P. D'andra Nanda
(click to enlarge) 

-Automatic doors should also be included to accommodate the disabled community as it would benefit the persons in wheelchairs and the visually impaired. In cases where these doors cannot be implemented long handled doors should be designed and set in place so that no matter the type of disabilities, doors can be opened or closed.

Image 2 showing an emergency exit door.
Source: Category: Home Page
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-Toilet facilities should be able to accommodate the disabled. Automatic sensors, specialized toilet and large enough changing rooms should be established especially for persons who are dependent on wheelchairs.

- Pertaining to evacuation procedures or emergency exists in building; authorities should consider how individuals with disabilities would safely exit buildings. Alarms and various sound systems should be implemented to facilitate these individuals to exit the buildings. In cases where electricity is switched off mechanical lifts should be utilized to accommodate persons with disabilities or inclined ramps alongside the emergency staircase. 

Streets

-Acoustic devices and tactile squares should be placed where traffic lights are in urban areas which would notify the persons with hearing or visual impairments on when it is appropriate to cross or move. Tactile squares are sensory paths that help notify persons with hearing or visual impairments at crossing zones. Implementing these would help improve the lifestyle of these persons.

-Establishing pavements with gentle sloping kerb ramps would facilitate the easy access onto pavements to persons dependent on wheelchairs. Ensuring that damaged pavements are repaired quickly would be  beneficial to these groups. Widening pavements should be done throughout the city area in order to facilitate these groups. Avoiding the implementation of step on pathways should be highly considered by planners.

Image 3 showing a sidewalk. Location is  MD-98 210 Fort Meade Rd, Laurel MD 20707,
United States of America. (Cross Streets)
Source: Jonathan E. Ramnarine
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-Parking facilitates specifically created for individual with disabilities should implemented in the public spaces. These parking areas should be located in close proximity to main areas needed to be accessed by said individuals. Bus stops should be adjusted to accommodate person with disabilities and should be implemented in a different area from the abled bodied individuals.

Image 4 showing a parking lot with accommodations for individuals with disabilities.
Location:  (Home Depot) Laurel, Maryland, United States of America
Source: Jonathan E. Ramnarine
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Recreational spaces

-These spaces should be user friendly for person with individuals as they too would like the opportunity to explore leisure and to relax. Accessibility to these parks should be properly established with wide enough pathways for person with wheelchairs. Signs should be implemented to notify the public that the parks is utilize by person with disabilities so caution must be practiced.

References

Ali, S. (2013, November 17). Sharda Ramlakhan: Disabled have rights too. Guardian. Retrieved from  http://m.guardian.co.tt/

Category: Home Page. (n.d.). Retrieved March 10, 2015, from http://originalhomeideas.com/category/uncategorized/page/71/

Leading the Charge. (2015, April). UWI Today. Retrieved from http://sta.uwi.edu/uwiToday/article14.asp

Pictures 2

Image 6 showing the Ministry of Social Development office in PoS.
Source: P. D'andra Nanda
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Image 7 showing narrow sidewalk.
Source: P. D'andra Nanda
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Image 8 showing a public washroom in PoS
Source: P. D;andra Nanda
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Image 9 showing the washroom area within a building in PoS.
The bathroom is spacious so an individual using a wheelchair could utilise
this space. However, the sink is high and the tap only works if one presses
 the top of it. This may cause difficulty for an individual who has a
mobility or visual impairment and by extension the general public. Therefore,
design of facilities for inclusion of individuals with disabilities needs to
adequately consider all aspects. Sensors of taps is an effective solution.
Source: P. D'andra Nanda
(click to enlarge)

Image 10 showing the bathroom facilities and emergency exit within
the Financial Intelligence Unit. The two images below show proper toilet
facilities for individuals with disabilities, however, poor maintenance.
The sink is the right height as well as the handles. In regards to the
emergency exit, it is a staircase. I ask, what about individuals with mobility
disabilities? They are either going to be trampled upon or going to be
left behind in the case of an emergency. Is that fair? Is the design of emergency
exists fair? or accommodating? All lives  are of value right? Proper
thought needs to be placed in designing spaces that should be
inclusive.
Source: P. D'andra Nanda
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Image 11 showing Capital Plaza mall in PoS.
Source: P. D'andra Nanda
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Image 12 showing the wheelchair access part of the Ministry of
Finance building in PoS. This building has proper access
to individuals with disabilities specifically those with mobility
disabilities. The incline is gently sloping and the pathway
 Ten years ago ramps along with signs would not have been put in place
 as the urban planners and developers would have created facilities
based on the person that are abled bodied. Today, for example the image
above shows more consideration for individuals with disabilities.
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Image 13 showing wheelchair access to the San Fernando General Hospital.
Source: Jonathan E. Ramnarine
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Pictures 1

The following two posts will show the built environment throughout main spaces in urban areas within Trinidad. Main spaces here refer to mostly used physical environments such as the streets and buildings. It should be noted that there are a number of buildings within Trinidad that cater for the basic needs, one way or another,  of individuals with mobility and visual impairments such as banks, some government offices and other private establishments. However, entry to most of those buildings was limited either because we were not authorised to gain access or could not take photos. The majority of those buildings employed ramps and railings and the bank has a specially allocated line for such individuals.

Image 1 showing steep kerbs on the streets of PoS.
Source: P. D'andra Nanda
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Image 2 showing potholes and large cracks on the streets of PoS
Source: P. D'andra Nanda
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Image 3 showing damaged kerbs on the streets of PoS
Source: P. D'andra Nanda
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Image 4 showing poorly placed drainage systems on the streets of poS
Source: P. D'andra Nanda
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Image 5 showing vehicles blocking the kerbs that individuals with
disabilities use to access the pavement.
Source: P. D'andra Nanda
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*Pictures continued on the next post.*

Experiences of persons with disabilities in Trinibago

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In other words, everyday life for people within a place is fixed around work, comfort, security, leisure, identity and belonging. This can be applied to cities and people since many live and/or converge in urban areas for various reasons. The key factor is that those individuals have varying backgrounds, education, social status and bodily functions. Work done by behavioural geographers ‘view the body as providing a bridge between the biological and the social, the private and the public.’ (Hall & Barrett, 2012, p247) Therefore the impact of the exclusion through insufficient built environments in which only certain types of body types are accommodated for, will impact negatively on individuals with disabilities. This impact does not only restrict their physical movement due to the design of spaces, but also may cause undue risk and impact their social life, emotional and mental well-being. An inclusive city must become a reality.

Image 1 showing an individual using a wheelchair in PoS

(click to enlarge)

Sharda Ramlakhan, president of the Consortium of Disability Organisations, and other similar members of society knows that a disability for them is definitely a barrier and it is not because they have to deal with whatever challenges are as a result of their disability. It is mainly due to the employed planning and polices or rather, lack thereof, in Trinidad and Tobago. She states that they do not just have access to jobs, entertainment venues or other establishments but to basic things such as proper toilet facilities and public transport. Sharda Ramlakhan was diagnosed with rare form of muscular dystrophy which affects the muscle and during this time she lived in the United Kingdom (UK) where she worked. When she moved back to Trinidad she noticed a stark difference because in the UK she was catered for by the built environment. One of the main problems remembered on her return to Trinidad was the inability to get a job which highlights the attitudinal behaviours in the country. The organisation that she participates in “is lobbying for better access to public services and tertiary education for people with disabilities.” (Ali, 2013) Although there are initiatives being made by the government such as the Elderly and Differently Abled Mobile (Eldamo) service, they are still limited. She highlights a number of issues that needs to be dealt with and a few measures that can be put in place. However, the ones noted were the attitudinal perceptions of those in authority and the wider public (being treated as charity objects and as having no value) and the lack of consultation between government bodies and individuals with disabilities.

Image 2 showing Ricky Francois is assisted into the new
 Elderly and Differently Abled Mobile (Eldamo) bus service by PTSC .
Source: (Warner, 2012)

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Quote source: (Ali, 2013)

References

 Ali, S. (2013, November 17). Sharda Ramlakhan: Disabled have rights too. Guardian. Retrieved from  http://m.guardian.co.tt/

Hall, T. & Barrett, H. (2012). Experiencing the City. In D. Bell & S. W. Williams (Eds.), Urban Geography (235-259). Abingdon, OX: Routledge.

Warner, T. S. (2012, December 05). Bus service for disabled, elderly launched at Napa. Guardian. Retrieved from http://indepth.guardian.co.tt/news/2012-12-05/bus-service-disabled-elderly-launched-napa

Urban Planning and Policies in Trinidad and Tobago

According to a policy document published by the Office of the Prime Minister (2010), the government of Trinidad and Tobago is aware that inaccessibility to the built environment is a hindrance to individuals with disabilities capability to partake in society. They also realise that it is a continuous process in which the collaboration between the government agencies, non-governmental organisation, the private sector and the media. As a result they outlined measures and policies to facilitate the integration of persons with disabilities. The major emphasis outlined in the document concerns legislation and administrative machinery specific to the needs of persons with disabilities. The legislation would be amended and reviewed to remove discrimination and promote equality and inclusiveness. In regards to legislation the immediate focus was supposed to be on housing and building codes. Also to be noted is the urban policy posed in which “consultation and collaboration with organizations of/catering for persons with disabilities and individuals with disabilities in decision-making on issues which are likely to impact on the lives of persons with disabilities.” (Office of the Prime Minister, 2010, p15)

Though these planning initiatives and policies have been outlined and supposed to be employed, the built environment in the city areas and by extension the country are not sufficient to facilitate the roles and functions of individuals with mobility and visual impairments, and by extension the larger disabled community. The codes by Town and Country Planning are either not updated or are not enforced because most of the built environments within the city areas (buildings, roads, pavements etc) are not up to standard. Mainly the newer buildings or recently renovated buildings as well as some private firms integrated some form of measures to facilitate the role of individuals with disabilities. Therefore, more effort, research and strict policies must be put in place because everyday life with a city is not limited to the able bodied individual. All citizens have their respective roles to play and activities to conduct with urban areas.

Some of the measures and policies outlined by the government are as follows:

Taken from page 2 are the Policy objectives:

a. To create a social and physical environment favouring the integration and full participation in society of children, youth and adults with disabilities;

b. To encourage self-reliance and to promote involvement and participation of persons with disabilities in the country's socio-economic development;

c. To eliminate marginalisation and discrimination of persons with disabilities;

d. To provide opportunities for a better quality of life for persons with disabilities;

e. To encourage and support continuous research projects in related areas

Taken from page 3 are the General principles:  Outlined in the document are several principles, three of which concern individuals with disabilities and the built environment.

a. Creation of a legislative base to protect the rights, promote the equalization of opportunities and thereby enhance the quality of life of persons with disabilities;

h. Ensuring the creation of an accessible physical and built environment for persons with disabilities.

m. Support and encouragement of research efforts in areas related to disability.

A section was done specifically on the built environment and measures were outlined that should be implemented. Some of these included:

a. Establishment of a task force to prepare an acceptable code of regulations for planning and building construction to enable persons with disabilities to access and use all public buildings;

b. The provision of information on legislation and other measures designed to achieve accessibility to professionals involved in the design and construction of physical facilities;

d. The setting up of specific timeframes for upgrading the existing built environment with short-term goals such as providing ramps, suitable toilets and handrails for persons with disabilities.

e. The modification of an appropriate proportion of public transport vehicles to allow ease of mobility for persons with disabilities;

 h. The adaptation of pavements and pedestrian crossings to meet the needs of persons with disabilities;

i. The introduction of zebra crossings to increase ease of mobility by persons with disabilities;

Image 1 showing the walkover in Curepe and Image 2 showing pavement on Todd Street San Fernando
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Source: Jonathan E. Ramnarine

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Image 3 showing a corner street in PoS (Click to enlarge)
Source: P. D'andra Nanda

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Image 4 showing pavement area in Charlotte, NC (click to enlarge)
Source: NACTO

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References:

National Association of City Transportation Officials (NACTO). (n.d.) Sidewalks. Retrieved March 18, 2015, from http://www.google.tt/imgres?imgurl=http://nacto.org/wp-content/themes/twentyten/images/usdg/sidewalks/carousel/driveway-crossing.jpg&imgrefurl=http://nacto.org/usdg/street-design-elements/sidewalks/&h=720&w=960&tbnid=G3OZ-ytH-6FTbM:&zoom=1&docid=VhppF0tQBsNznM&ei=tbQcVZbWCdKBygTxqYKICQ&tbm=isch&ved=0CHkQMyhUMFQ

The Office of the Prime Minister. (2010). Policy on Persons With Disabilities (Trinidad & Tobago). Retrieved April 06, 2015, from http://www.scribd.com/doc/32286918/Policy-on-Persons-With-Disabilities-Trinidad-Tobago#scribd

City Planning and Policy continued

The built form of the city and the planning and policies that go along with it can shape lives in a positive light and then it can shape lives in a negative light. One way is by excluding certain groups of urban participants. Designers, planners, policy makers, architects etc have the main influence on the built environment of a city and should put measures in place to ensure that it reflects various practical and aesthetic designs (Hall & Barrett, 2012). This is to guarantee that all needs are met. However, researchers have outlined the issues faced “in the built environment by those whose needs appear to not have been considered in the design of those spaces.” (Hall and Barrett, 2012, p. 189) Therefore it seems that built environments embodies divisions which casts light on the urban planning and policies employed. This may be due to traditional ideologies and conventional ways of designing built environments. The urban environment is mostly ‘man-made’ which means its use and layouts reflect that of man. Moreover, the architectural design is built around the able-bodied individual. Therefore, groups such as women, the elderly and individuals with disabilities, are excluded because their roles and activities within a city have not been considered. At present, modifications have been made to planning designs and policies due to changing societies. However limits still remain especially with respect to individuals with disabilities.

This is also a reflection in the era in which the country is in such as industrial, modern, post-modern etc. Urban areas in Trinidad and Tobago are mostly modern or post-industrial depending on the urban space and the perspective. A modern city is characterised by its high rise buildings which are seen as economic in nature. The modern city movement occurred in the 19^th and 20^th century and during this time Trinidad and Tobago’s main urban developments were taking place. During this time much consideration was not given to certain groups as their roles within urban areas were limited and as such they were not considered in the design, as mentioned above. These traditional perspectives remained within the modern culture and design and as time elapsed and such groups demanded rights, changes were made. Presently most of the inclusive infrastructure can be seen in post-modern societies.(Prince, 2008) Therefore as Mumford (1938) stated ‘cities are a product of time’ and the transition and progress if nations influences the Urban form and culture.  

The pictures that follow show general built environment in Port of Spain and San Fernando. 

Image 1 showing High Street, San Fernando (click to enlarge)
Source: Jonathan E. Ramnarine 

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Image 2 showing Lower High Street, San Fernando (click to enlarge)
Source: Jonathan E. Ramnarine.

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Image 3 corner of Queen and Henry Street, showing Port of Spain (click to enlarge)
Source: P. D'andra Nanda

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According to Michael J. Prince (2008) there are different perspectives to analyse urban life in cities. In his article he outlines four perspectives; two disregarded or did not consider individuals with disabilities while the other two highlighted the need for inclusivity. Perspective three and four, Excluded Others and Diverse Civic Publics, notes that it recognizes the needs and rights of social groups which include people with disabilities in urban areas. These perspectives are both post-modernists approaches as compared to the first two perspectives which are more classic approaches that ignore these social groups. Said approaches reflect a change in discourse in urban planning and development where technical establishment of infrastructure in cites are encouraged to promote equality and social harmony to all groups especially persons with disabilities.

References:

Hall, T. & Barrett, H. (2012). Architecture. In D. Bell & S. W. Williams (Eds.), Urban Geography (189-214). Abingdon, OX: Routledge.

Mumford, L. (1938). The culture of Cities. Harcourt, Bruce and Company. 

Prince, M. J. (2008). Inclusive City Life: Persons with Disabilities and the Politics of Difference. Disability Studies Quarterly, 28(1), Retrieved from http://dsq-sds.org/article/view/65/65